_
VOLUME I: SECTION VII. ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
_Leonardo's researches on the proportions and movements of the human
figure must have been for the most part completed and written before
the year_ 1498; _for LUCA PACIOLO writes, in the dedication to
Ludovico il Moro, of his book_ Divina Proportione, _which was
published in that year:_ "Leonardo da venci ... hauedo gia co tutta
diligetia al degno libro de pictura e movimenti humani posto fine".
_The selection of Leonardo's axioms contained in the Vatican copy
attributes these words to the author:_ "e il resto si dira nella
universale misura del huomo". (_MANZI, p. 147; LUDWIG, No. 264_).
_LOMAZZO, again, in his_ Idea del Tempio della Pittura Milano 1590,
cap. IV, _says:_ "Lionardo Vinci ... dimostro anco in figura tutte
le proporzioni dei membri del corpo umano".
_The Vatican copy includes but very few sections of the_ "Universale
misura del huomo" _and until now nothing has been made known of the
original MSS. on the subject which have supplied the very extensive
materials for this portion of the work. The collection at Windsor,
belonging to her Majesty the Queen, includes by far the most
important part of Leonardo's investigations on this subject,
constituting about half of the whole of the materials here
published; and the large number of original drawings adds greatly to
the interest which the subject itself must command. Luca Paciolo
would seem to have had these MSS. (which I have distinguished by the
initials W. P.) in his mind when he wrote the passage quoted above.
Still, certain notes of a later date--such as Nos. 360, 362 and 363,
from MS. E, written in 1513--14, sufficiently prove that Leonardo did
not consider his earlier studies on the Proportions and Movements of
the Human Figure final and complete, as we might suppose from Luca
Paciolo's statement. Or else he took the subject up again at a
subsequent period, since his former researches had been carried on
at Milan between 1490 and 1500. Indeed it is highly probable that
the anatomical studies which he was pursuing zvith so much zeal
between 1510--16 should have led him to reconsider the subject of
Proportion.
Preliminary observations (308-309) 308.
Every man, at three years old is half the full height he will grow
to at last.
309.
If a man 2 braccia high is too small, one of four is too tall, the
medium being what is admirable. Between 2 and 4 comes 3; therefore
take a man of 3 braccia in height and measure him by the rule I will
give you. If you tell me that I may be mistaken, and judge a man to
be well proportioned who does not conform to this division, I answer
that you must look at many men of 3 braccia, and out of the larger
number who are alike in their limbs choose one of those who are most
graceful and take your measurements. The length of the hand is 1/3
of a braccio [8 inches] and this is found 9 times in man. And the
face [Footnote 7: The account here given of the _braccio_ is of
importance in understanding some of the succeeding chapters. _Testa_
must here be understood to mean the face. The statements in this
section are illustrated in part on Pl. XI.] is the same, and from
the pit of the throat to the shoulder, and from the shoulder to the
nipple, and from one nipple to the other, and from each nipple to
the pit of the throat.
Proportions of the head and face (310-318) 310.
The space between the parting of the lips [the mouth] and the base
of the nose is one-seventh of the face.
The space from the mouth to the bottom of the chin _c d_ is the
fourth part of the face and equal to the width of the mouth.
The space from the chin to the base of the nose _e f_ is the third
part of the face and equal to the length of the nose and to the
forehead.
The distance from the middle of the nose to the bottom of the chin
_g h_, is half the length of the face.
The distance from the top of the nose, where the eyebrows begin, to
the bottom of the chin, _i k_, is two thirds of the face.
The space from the parting of the lips to the top of the chin _l m_,
that is where the chin ends and passes into the lower lip of the
mouth, is the third of the distance from the parting of the lips to
the bottom of the chin and is the twelfth part of the face. From the
top to the bottom of the chin _m n_ is the sixth part of the face
and is the fifty fourth part of a man's height.
From the farthest projection of the chin to the throat _o p_ is
equal to the space between the mouth and the bottom of the chin, and
a fourth of the face.
The distance from the top of the throat to the pit of the throat
below _q r_ is half the length of the face and the eighteenth part
of a man's height.
From the chin to the back of the neck _s t_, is the same distance as
between the mouth and the roots of the hair, that is three quarters
of the head.
From the chin to the jaw bone _v x_ is half the head and equal to
the thickness of the neck in profile.
The thickness of the head from the brow to the nape is once and 3/4
that of the neck.
[Footnote: The drawings to this text, lines 1-10 are on Pl. VII, No.
I. The two upper sketches of heads, Pl. VII, No. 2, belong to lines
11-14, and in the original are placed immediately below the sketches
reproduced on Pl. VII, No. 1.]
311.
The distance from the attachment of one ear to the other is equal to
that from the meeting of the eyebrows to the chin, and in a fine
face the width of the mouth is equal to the length from the parting
of the lips to the bottom of the chin.
312.
The cut or depression below the lower lip of the mouth is half way
between the bottom of the nose and the bottom of the chin.
The face forms a square in itself; that is its width is from the
outer corner of one eye to the other, and its height is from the
very top of the nose to the bottom of the lower lip of the mouth;
then what remains above and below this square amounts to the height
of such another square, _a_ _b_ is equal to the space between _c_
_d_; _d_ _n_ in the same way to _n_ _c_, and likewise _s_ _r_, _q_
_p_, _h_ _k_ are equal to each other.
It is as far between _m_ and _s_ as from the bottom of the nose to
the chin. The ear is exactly as long as the nose. It is as far from
_x_ to _j_ as from the nose to the chin. The parting of the mouth
seen in profile slopes to the angle of the jaw. The ear should be as
high as from the bottom of the nose to the top of the eye-lid. The
space between the eyes is equal to the width of an eye. The ear is
over the middle of the neck, when seen in profile. The distance from
4 to 5 is equal to that from s_ to _r_.
[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. I, where the text of lines 3-13 is also
given in facsimile.]
313.
(_a_ _b_) is equal to (_c_ _d_).
[Footnote: See Pl. VII, No. 3. Reference may also be made here to
two pen and ink drawings of heads in profile with figured
measurements, of which there is no description in the MS. These are
given on Pl. XVII, No. 2.--A head, to the left, with part of the
torso [W. P. 5a], No. 1 on the same plate is from MS. A 2b and in
the original occurs on a page with wholly irrelevant text on matters
of natural history. M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A
has reproduced this head and discussed it fully [note on page 12];
he has however somewhat altered the original measurements. The
complicated calculations which M. RAVAISSON has given appear to me
in no way justified. The sketch, as we see it, can hardly have been
intended for any thing more than an experimental attempt to
ascertain relative proportions. We do not find that Leonardo made
use of circular lines in any other study of the proportions of the
human head. At the same time we see that the proportions of this
sketch are not in accordance with the rules which he usually
observed (see for instance No. 310).]
The head _a_ _f_ 1/6 larger than _n_ _f_.
315.
From the eyebrow to the junction of the lip with the chin, and the
angle of the jaw and the upper angle where the ear joins the temple
will be a perfect square. And each side by itself is half the head.
The hollow of the cheek bone occurs half way between the tip of the
nose and the top of the jaw bone, which is the lower angle of the
setting on of the ear, in the frame here represented.
From the angle of the eye-socket to the ear is as far as the length
of the ear, or the third of the face.
[Footnote: See Pl. IX. The text, in the original is written behind
the head. The handwriting would seem to indicate a date earlier than
1480. On the same leaf there is a drawing in red chalk of two
horsemen of which only a portion of the upper figure is here
visible. The whole leaf measures 22 1/2 centimetres wide by 29 long,
and is numbered 127 in the top right-hand corner.]
316.
From _a_ to _b_--that is to say from the roots of the hair in front
to the top of the head--ought to be equal to _c_ _d_;--that is from
the bottom of the nose to the meeting of the lips in the middle of
the mouth. From the inner corner of the eye _m_ to the top of the
head _a_ is as far as from _m_ down to the chin _s_. _s_ _c_ _f_ _b_
are all at equal distances from each other.
[Footnote: The drawing in silver-point on bluish tinted paper--Pl.
X--which belongs to this chapter has been partly drawn over in ink
by Leonardo himself.]
317.
From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin is 1/9, and from
the roots of the hair to the chin is 1/9 of the distance from the
roots of the hair to the ground. The greatest width of the face is
equal to the space between the mouth and the roots of the hair and
is 1/12 of the whole height. From the top of the ear to the top of
the head is equal to the distance from the bottom of the chin to the
lachrymatory duct of the eye; and also equal to the distance from
the angle of the chin to that of the jaw; that is the 1/16 of the
whole. The small cartilage which projects over the opening of the
ear towards the nose is half-way between the nape and the eyebrow;
the thickness of the neck in profile is equal to the space between
the chin and the eyes, and to the space between the chin and the
jaw, and it is 1/18 of the height of the man.
318.
_a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_, _i k_ are equal to each other in size
excepting that _d f_ is accidental.
[Footnote: See Pl. XI.]
Proportions of the head seen in front (319-321) 319.
_a n o f_ are equal to the mouth.
_a c_ and _a f_ are equal to the space between one eye and the
other.
_n m o f q r_ are equal to half the width of the eye lids, that is
from the inner [lachrymatory] corner of the eye to its outer corner;
and in like manner the division between the chin and the mouth; and
in the same way the narrowest part of the nose between the eyes. And
these spaces, each in itself, is the 19th part of the head, _n o_ is
equal to the length of the eye or of the space between the eyes.
_m c_ is 1/3 of _n m_ measuring from the outer corner of the eyelids
to the letter _c_. _b s_ will be equal to the width of the nostril.
[Footnote: See Pl. XII.]
320.
The distance between the centres of the pupils of the eyes is 1/3 of
the face. The space between the outer corners of the eyes, that is
where the eye ends in the eye socket which contains it, thus the
outer corners, is half the face.
The greatest width of the face at the line of the eyes is equal to
the distance from the roots of the hair in front to the parting of
the lips.
[Footnote: There are, with this section, two sketches of eyes, not
reproduced here.]
321.
The nose will make a double square; that is the width of the nose at
the nostrils goes twice into the length from the tip of the nose to
the eyebrows. And, in the same way, in profile the distance from the
extreme side of the nostril where it joins the cheek to the tip of
the nose is equal to the width of the nose in front from one nostril
to the other. If you divide the whole length of the nose--that is
from the tip to the insertion of the eyebrows, into 4 equal parts,
you will find that one of these parts extends from the tip of the
nostrils to the base of the nose, and the upper division lies
between the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the
eyebrows; and the two middle parts [together] are equal to the
length of the eye from the inner to the outer corner.
[Footnote: The two bottom sketches on Pl. VII, No. 4 face the six
lines of this section,--With regard to the proportions of the head
in profile see No. 312.]
Proportions of the foot (322-323) 322.
The great toe is the sixth part of the foot, taking the measure in
profile, on the inside of the foot, from where this toe springs from
the ball of the sole of the foot to its tip _a b_; and it is equal
to the distance from the mouth to the bottom of the chin. If you
draw the foot in profile from the outside, make the little toe begin
at three quarters of the length of the foot, and you will find the
same distance from the insertion of this toe as to the farthest
prominence of the great toe.
323.
For each man respectively the distance between _a b_ is equal to _c d_.
Relative proportion of the hand and foot (324) 324.
The foot is as much longer than the hand as the thickness of the arm
at the wrist where it is thinnest seen facing.
Again, you will find that the foot is as much longer than the hand
as the space between the inner angle of the little toe to the last
projection of the big toe, if you measure along the length of the
foot.
The palm of the hand without the fingers goes twice into the length
of the foot without the toes.
If you hold your hand with the fingers straight out and close
together you will find it to be of the same width as the widest part
of the foot, that is where it is joined onto the toes.
And if you measure from the prominence of the inner ancle to the end
of the great toe you will find this measure to be as long as the
whole hand.
From the top angle of the foot to the insertion of the toes is equal
to the hand from wrist joint to the tip of the thumb.
The smallest width of the hand is equal to the smallest width of the
foot between its joint into the leg and the insertion of the toes.
The width of the heel at the lower part is equal to that of the arm
where it joins the hand; and also to the leg where it is thinnest
when viewed in front.
The length of the longest toe, from its first division from the
great toe to its tip is the fourth of the foot from the centre of
the ancle bone to the tip, and it is equal to the width of the
mouth. The distance between the mouth and the chin is equal to that
of the knuckles and of the three middle fingers and to the length of
their first joints if the hand is spread, and equal to the distance
from the joint of the thumb to the outset of the nails, that is the
fourth part of the hand and of the face.
The space between the extreme poles inside and outside the foot
called the ancle or ancle bone _a b_ is equal to the space between
the mouth and the inner corner of the eye.
Relative proportions of the foot and of the face (325-327) 325.
The foot, from where it is attached to the leg, to the tip of the
great toe is as long as the space between the upper part of the chin
and the roots of the hair _a b_; and equal to five sixths of the
face.
326.
_a d_ is a head's length, _c b_ is a head's length. The four smaller
toes are all equally thick from the nail at the top to the bottom,
and are 1/13 of the foot.
[Footnote: See Pl. XIV, No. 1, a drawing of a foot with the text in
three lines below it.]
327.
The whole length of the foot will lie between the elbow and the
wrist and between the elbow and the inner angle of the arm towards
the breast when the arm is folded. The foot is as long as the whole
head of a man, that is from under the chin to the topmost part of
the head[Footnote 2: _nel modo che qui i figurato_. See Pl. VII, No.
4, the upper figure. The text breaks off at the end of line 2 and
the text given under No. 321 follows below. It may be here remarked
that the second sketch on W. P. 311 has in the original no
explanatory text.] in the way here figured.
Proportions of the leg (328-331) 328.
The greatest thickness of the calf of the leg is at a third of its
height _a b_, and is a twentieth part thicker than the greatest
thickness of the foot.
_a c_ is half of the head, and equal to _d b_ and to the insertion
of the five toes _e f_. _d k_ diminishes one sixth in the leg _g h_.
_g h_ is 1/3 of the head; _m n_ increases one sixth from _a e_ and
is 7/12 of the head, _o p_ is 1/10 less than _d k_ and is 6/17 of
the head. _a_ is at half the distance between _b q_, and is 1/4 of
the man. _r_ is half way between _s_ and _b_[Footnote 11: _b_ is
here and later on measured on the right side of the foot as seen by
the spectator.]. The concavity of the knee outside _r_ is higher
than that inside _a_. The half of the whole height of the leg from
the foot _r_, is half way between the prominence _s_ and the ground
_b_. _v_ is half way between _t_ and _b_. The thickness of the thigh
seen in front is equal to the greatest width of the face, that is
2/3 of the length from the chin to the top of the head; _z r_ is 5/6
of 7 to _v_; _m n_ is equal to 7 _v_ and is 1/4 of _r b_, _x y_ goes
3 times into _r b_, and into _r s_.
[Footnote 22-35: The sketch illustrating these lines is on Pl. XIII, No. 2.]
[Footnote 22: a b _entra in_ c f 6 _e_ 6 _in_ c n. Accurate
measurement however obliges us to read 7 for 6.] _a b_ goes six
times into _c f_ and six times into _c n_ and is equal to _g h_; _i
k l m_ goes 4 times into _d f_, and 4 times into _d n_ and is 3/7 of
the foot; _p q r s_ goes 3 times into _d f, and 3 times into _b n_;
[Footnote: 25. _y_ is not to be found on the diagram and _x_ occurs
twice; this makes the passage very obscure.] _x y_ is 1/8 of _x f_
and is equal to _n q_. 3 7 is 1/9 of _n f_; 4 5 is 1/10 of _n f_
[Footnote: 22-27. Compare with this lines 18-24 of No. 331, and the
sketch of a leg in profile Pl. XV.].
I want to know how much a man increases in height by standing on
tip-toe and how much _p g_ diminishes by stooping; and how much it
increases at _n q_ likewise in bending the foot.
[Footnote 34: _e f_ 4 _dal cazo_. By reading _i_ for _e_ the sense
of this passage is made clear.] _e f_ is four times in the distance
between the genitals and the sole of the foot; [Footnote 35: 2 is
not to be found in the sketch which renders the passage obscure. The
two last lines are plainly legible in the facsimile.] 3 7 is six
times from 3 to 2 and is equal to _g h_ and _i k_.
[Footnote: The drawing of a leg seen in front Pl. XIII, No. 1
belongs to the text from lines 3-21. The measurements in this
section should be compared with the text No. 331, lines 1-13, and
the sketch of a leg seen in front on Pl. XV.]
329.
The length of the foot from the end of the toes to the heel goes
twice into that from the heel to the knee, that is where the leg
bone [fibula] joins the thigh bone [femur].
330.
_a n b_ are equal; _c n d_ are equal; _n c_ makes two feet; _n d_
makes 2 feet.
[Footnote: See the lower sketch, Pl. XIV, No. 1.]
331.
_m n o_ are equal. The narrowest width of the leg seen in front goes
8 times from the sole of the foot to the joint of the knee, and is
the same width as the arm, seen in front at the wrist, and as the
longest measure of the ear, and as the three chief divisions into
which we divide the face; and this measurement goes 4 times from the
wrist joint of the hand to the point of the elbow. [14] The foot is
as long as the space from the knee between _a_ and _b_; and the
patella of the knee is as long as the leg between _r_ and _s_.
[18] The least thickness of the leg in profile goes 6 times from the
sole of the foot to the knee joint and is the same width as the
space between the outer corner of the eye and the opening of the
ear, and as the thickest part of the arm seen in profile and between
the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the hair.
_a b c_ [_d_] are all relatively of equal length, _c d_ goes twice
from the sole of the foot to the centre of the knee and the same
from the knee to the hip.
[28]_a b c_ are equal; _a_ to _b_ is 2 feet--that is to say
measuring from the heel to the tip of the great toe.
[Footnote: See Pl. XV. The text of lines 2-17 is to the left of the
front view of the leg, to which it refers. Lines 18-27 are in the
middle column and refer to the leg seen in profile and turned to the
left, on the right hand side of the writing. Lines 20-30 are above,
to the left and apply to the sketch below them.
Some farther remarks on the proportion of the leg will be found in
No. 336, lines 6, 7.]
On the central point of the whole body (332) 332.
In kneeling down a man will lose the fourth part of his height.
When a man kneels down with his hands folded on his breast the navel
will mark half his height and likewise the points of the elbows.
Half the height of a man who sits--that is from the seat to the top
of the head--will be where the arms fold below the breast, and
below the shoulders. The seated portion--that is from the seat to
the top of the head--will be more than half the man's [whole height]
by the length of the scrotum.
[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
The relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure (333) 333.
The cubit is one fourth of the height of a man and is equal to the
greatest width of the shoulders. From the joint of one shoulder to
the other is two faces and is equal to the distance from the top of
the breast to the navel. [Footnote 9: _dalla detta somita_. It would
seem more accurate to read here _dal detto ombilico_.] From this
point to the genitals is a face's length.
[Footnote: Compare with this the sketches on the other page of the
same leaf. Pl. VIII, No. 2.]
The relative proportions of the head and of the torso (334) 334.
From the roots of the hair to the top of the breast _a b_ is the
sixth part of the height of a man and this measure is equal.
From the outside part of one shoulder to the other is the same
distance as from the top of the breast to the navel and this measure
goes four times from the sole of the foot to the lower end of the
nose.
The [thickness of] the arm where it springs from the shoulder in
front goes 6 times into the space between the two outside edges of
the shoulders and 3 times into the face, and four times into the
length of the foot and three into the hand, inside or outside.
[Footnote: The three sketches Pl. XIV, No. 2 belong to this text.]
The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335-336) 335.
_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the space from the armpit of
the shoulder to the genitals and to the distance from the tip of the
fingers of the hand to the joint of the arm, and to the half of the
breast; and you must know that _c b_ is the third part of the height
of a man from the shoulders to the ground; _d e f_ are equal to each
other and equal to the greatest width of the shoulders.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 1.]
336.
--Top of the chin--hip--the insertion of the middle finger. The end
of the calf of the leg on the inside of the thigh.--The end of the
swelling of the shin bone of the leg. [6] The smallest thickness of
the leg goes 3 times into the thigh seen in front.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVII, No. 2, middle sketch.]
The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot (337) 337.
The torso _a b_ in its thinnest part measures a foot; and from _a_
to _b_ is 2 feet, which makes two squares to the seat--its thinnest
part goes 3 times into the length, thus making 3 squares.
[Footnote: See Pl, VII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]
The proportions of the whole figure (338-341) 338.
A man when he lies down is reduced to 1/9 of his height.
339.
The opening of the ear, the joint of the shoulder, that of the hip
and the ancle are in perpendicular lines; _a n_ is equal to _m o_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 2, the upper sketch.]
340.
From the chin to the roots of the hair is 1/10 of the whole figure.
From the joint of the palm of the hand to the tip of the longest
finger is 1/10. From the chin to the top of the head 1/8; and from
the pit of the stomach to the top of the breast is 1/6, and from the
pit below the breast bone to the top of the head 1/4. From the chin
to the nostrils 1/3 Part of the face, the same from the nostrils to
the brow and from the brow to the roots of the hair, and the foot is
1/6, the elbow 1/4, the width of the shoulders 1/4.
341.
The width of the shoulders is 1/4 of the whole. From the joint of
the shoulder to the hand is 1/3, from the parting of the lips to
below the shoulder-blade is one foot.
The greatest thickness of a man from the breast to the spine is one
8th of his height and is equal to the space between the bottom of
the chin and the top of the head.
The greatest width is at the shoulders and goes 4.
The torso from the front and back (342) 342.
The width of a man under the arms is the same as at the hips.
A man's width across the hips is equal to the distance from the top
of the hip to the bottom of the buttock, when a man stands equally
balanced on both feet; and there is the same distance from the top
of the hip to the armpit. The waist, or narrower part above the hips
will be half way between the arm pits and the bottom of the buttock.
[Footnote: The lower sketch Pl. XVI, No. 2, is drawn by the side of
line 1.]
Vitruvius' scheme of proportions (343) 343.
Vitruvius, the architect, says in his work on architecture that the
measurements of the human body are distributed by Nature as follows:
that is that 4 fingers make 1 palm, and 4 palms make 1 foot, 6 palms
make 1 cubit; 4 cubits make a man's height. And 4 cubits make one
pace and 24 palms make a man; and these measures he used in his
buildings. If you open your legs so much as to decrease your height
1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your middle fingers touch
the level of the top of your head you must know that the centre of
the outspread limbs will be in the navel and the space between the
legs will be an equilateral triangle.
The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height.
From the roots of the hair to the bottom of the chin is the tenth of
a man's height; from the bottom of the chin to the top of his head
is one eighth of his height; from the top of the breast to the top
of his head will be one sixth of a man. From the top of the breast
to the roots of the hair will be the seventh part of the whole man.
From the nipples to the top of the head will be the fourth part of a
man. The greatest width of the shoulders contains in itself the
fourth part of the man. From the elbow to the tip of the hand will
be the fifth part of a man; and from the elbow to the angle of the
armpit will be the eighth part of the man. The whole hand will be
the tenth part of the man; the beginning of the genitals marks the
middle of the man. The foot is the seventh part of the man. From the
sole of the foot to below the knee will be the fourth part of the
man. From below the knee to the beginning of the genitals will be
the fourth part of the man. The distance from the bottom of the chin
to the nose and from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows is, in
each case the same, and like the ear, a third of the face.
[Footnote: See Pl. XVIII. The original leaf is 21 centimetres wide
and 33 1/2 long. At the ends of the scale below the figure are
written the words _diti_ (fingers) and _palmi_ (palms). The passage
quoted from Vitruvius is Book III, Cap. 1, and Leonardo's drawing is
given in the editions of Vitruvius by FRA GIOCONDO (Venezia 1511,
fol., Firenze 1513, 8vo.) and by CESARIANO (Como 1521).]
The arm and head (344) 344.
From _b_ to _a_ is one head, as well as from _c_ to _a_ and this
happens when the elbow forms a right angle.
[Footnote: See Pl. XLI, No. 1.]
Proportions of the arm (345-349) 345.
From the tip of the longest finger of the hand to the shoulder joint
is four hands or, if you will, four faces.
_a b c_ are equal and each interval is 2 heads.
[Footnote: Lines 1-3 are given on Pl. XV below the front view of the
leg; lines 4 and 5 are below again, on the left side. The lettering
refers to the bent arm near the text.]
346.
The hand from the longest finger to the wrist joint goes 4 times
from the tip of the longest finger to the shoulder joint.
347.
_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the foot and to the space
between the nipple and the navel _d e_ will be the third part of the
whole man.
_f g_ is the fourth part of a man and is equal to _g h_ and measures
a cubit.
[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 1. 1. _mamolino_ (=_bambino_, little
child) may mean here the navel.]
348.
_a b_ goes 4 times into _a c_ and 9 into _a m_. The greatest
thickness of the arm between the elbow and the hand goes 6 times
into _a m_ and is equal to _r f_. The greatest thickness of the arm
between the shoulder and the elbow goes 4 times into _c m_, and is
equal to _h n g_. The smallest thickness of the arm above the elbow
_x y_ is not the base of a square, but is equal to half the space
_h_ 3 which is found between the inner joint of the arm and the
wrist joint.
[11]The width of the wrist goes 12 times into the whole arm; that is
from the tip of the fingers to the shoulder joint; that is 3 times
into the hand and 9 into the arm.
The arm when bent is 4 heads.
The arm from the shoulder to the elbow in bending increases in
length, that is in the length from the shoulder to the elbow, and
this increase is equal to the thickness of the arm at the wrist when
seen in profile. And the space between the bottom of the chin and
the parting of the lips, is equal to the thickness of the 2 middle
fingers, and to the width of the mouth and to the space between the
roots of the hair on the forehead and the top of the head [Footnote:
_Queste cose_. This passage seems to have been written on purpose to
rectify the foregoing lines. The error is explained by the
accompanying sketch of the bones of the arm.]. All these distances
are equal to each other, but they are not equal to the
above-mentioned increase in the arm.
The arm between the elbow and wrist never increases by being bent or
extended.
The arm, from the shoulder to the inner joint when extended.
When the arm is extended, _p n_ is equal to _n a_. And when it is
bent _n a_ diminishes 1/6 of its length and _p n_ does the same. The
outer elbow joint increases 1/7 when bent; and thus by being bent it
increases to the length of 2 heads. And on the inner side, by
bending, it is found that whereas the arm from where it joins the
side to the wrist, was 2 heads and a half, in bending it loses the
half head and measures only two: one from the [shoulder] joint to
the end [by the elbow], and the other to the hand.
The arm when folded will measure 2 faces up to the shoulder from the
elbow and 2 from the elbow to the insertion of the four fingers on
the palm of the hand. The length from the base of the fingers to the
elbow never alters in any position of the arm.
If the arm is extended it decreases by 1/3 of the length between _b_
and _h_; and if--being extended--it is bent, it will increase the
half of _o e_. [Footnote 59-61: The figure sketched in the margin is
however drawn to different proportions.] The length from the
shoulder to the elbow is the same as from the base of the thumb,
inside, to the elbow _a b c_.
[Footnote 62-64: The arm sketch on the margin of the MS. is
identically the same as that given below on Pl. XX which may
therefore be referred to in this place. In line 62 we read therefore
_z c_ for _m n_.] The smallest thickness of the arm in profile _z c_
goes 6 times between the knuckles of the hand and the dimple of the
elbow when extended and 14 times in the whole arm and 42 in the
whole man [64]. The greatest thickness of the arm in profile is
equal to the greatest thickness of the arm in front; but the first
is placed at a third of the arm from the shoulder joint to the elbow
and the other at a third from the elbow towards the hand.
[Footnote: Compare Pl. XVII. Lines 1-10 and 11-15 are written in two
columns below the extended arm, and at the tips of the fingers we
find the words: _fine d'unghie_ (ends of the nails). Part of the
text--lines 22 to 25--is visible by the side of the sketches on Pl.
XXXV, No. 1.]
349.
From the top of the shoulder to the point of the elbow is as far as
from that point to the joints of the four fingers with the palm of
the hand, and each is 2 faces.
[5]_a e_ is equal to the palm of the hand, _r f_ and _o g_ are equal
to half a head and each goes 4 times into _a b_ and _b c_. From _c_
to _m_ is 1/2 a head; _m n_ is 1/3 of a head and goes 6 times into
_c b_ and into _b a_; _a b_ loses 1/7 of its length when the arm is
extended; _c b_ never alters; _o_ will always be the middle point
between _a_ and _s_.
_y l_ is the fleshy part of the arm and measures one head; and when
the arm is bent this shrinks 2/5 of its length; _o a_ in bending
loses 1/6 and so does _o r_.
_a b_ is 1/7 of _r c_. _f s_ will be 1/8 of _r c_, and each of those
2 measurements is the largest of the arm; _k h_ is the thinnest part
between the shoulder and the elbow and it is 1/8 of the whole arm _r
c_; _o p_ is 1/5 of _r l_; _c z_ goes 13 times into _r c_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XX where the text is also seen from lines 5-23.]
The movement of the arm (350-354) 350.
In the innermost bend of the joints of every limb the reliefs are
converted into a hollow, and likewise every hollow of the innermost
bends becomes a convexity when the limb is straightened to the
utmost. And in this very great mistakes are often made by those who
have insufficient knowledge and trust to their own invention and do
not have recourse to the imitation of nature; and these variations
occur more in the middle of the sides than in front, and more at the
back than at the sides.
351.
When the arm is bent at an angle at the elbow, it will produce some
angle; the more acute the angle is, the more will the muscles within
the bend be shortened; while the muscles outside will become of
greater length than before. As is shown in the example; _d c e_ will
shrink considerably; and _b n_ will be much extended.
[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 2.]
352.
OF PAINTING.
The arm, as it turns, thrusts back its shoulder towards the middle
of the back.
353.
The principal movements of the hand are 10; that is forwards,
backwards, to right and to left, in a circular motion, up or down,
to close and to open, and to spread the fingers or to press them
together.
354.
OF THE MOTIONS OF THE FINGERS.
The movements of the fingers principally consist in extending and
bending them. This extension and bending vary in manner; that is,
sometimes they bend altogether at the first joint; sometimes they
bend, or extend, half way, at the 2nd joint; and sometimes they bend
in their whole length and in all the three joints at once. If the 2
first joints are hindered from bending, then the 3rd joint can be
bent with greater ease than before; it can never bend of itself, if
the other joints are free, unless all three joints are bent. Besides
all these movements there are 4 other principal motions of which 2
are up and down, the two others from side to side; and each of these
is effected by a single tendon. From these there follow an infinite
number of other movements always effected by two tendons; one tendon
ceasing to act, the other takes up the movement. The tendons are
made thick inside the fingers and thin outside; and the tendons
inside are attached to every joint but outside they are not.
[Footnote 26: This head line has, in the original, no text to
follow.] Of the strength [and effect] of the 3 tendons inside the
fingers at the 3 joints.
The movement of the torso (355-361) 355.
Observe the altered position of the shoulder in all the movements of
the arm, going up and down, inwards and outwards, to the back and to
the front, and also in circular movements and any others.
And do the same with reference to the neck, hands and feet and the
breast above the lips &c.
356.
Three are the principal muscles of the shoulder, that is _b c d_,
and two are the lateral muscles which move it forward and backward,
that is _a o_; _a_ moves it forward, and _o_ pulls it back; and bed
raises it; _a b c_ moves it upwards and forwards, and _c d o_
upwards and backwards. Its own weight almost suffices to move it
downwards.
The muscle _d_ acts with the muscle _c_ when the arm moves forward;
and in moving backward the muscle _b_ acts with the muscle _c_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXI. In the original the lettering has been
written in ink upon the red chalk drawing and the outlines of the
figures have in most places been inked over.]
357.
OF THE LOINS, WHEN BENT.
The loins or backbone being bent. The breasts are are always lower
than the shoulderblades of the back.
If the breast bone is arched the breasts are higher than the
shoulderblades.
If the loins are upright the breast will always be found at the same
level as the shoulderblades.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 1.]
358.
_a b_ the tendon and ankle in raising the heel approach each other
by a finger's breadth; in lowering it they separate by a finger's
breadth.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 2. Compare this facsimile and text with
Pl. III, No. 2, and p. 152 of MANZI'S edition. Also with No. 274 of
LUDWIG'S edition of the Vatican Copy.]
359.
Just so much as the part _d a_ of the nude figure decreases in this
position so much does the opposite part increase; that is: in
proportion as the length of the part _d a_ diminishes the normal
size so does the opposite upper part increase beyond its [normal]
size. The navel does not change its position to the male organ; and
this shrinking arises because when a figure stands on one foot, that
foot becomes the centre [of gravity] of the superimposed weight.
This being so, the middle between the shoulders is thrust above it
out of it perpendicular line, and this line, which forms the central
line of the external parts of the body, becomes bent at its upper
extremity [so as to be] above the foot which supports the body; and
the transverse lines are forced into such angles that their ends are
lower on the side which is supported. As is shown at _a b c_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 3.]
360.
OF PAINTING.
Note in the motions and attitudes of figures how the limbs vary, and
their feeling, for the shoulderblades in the motions of the arms and
shoulders vary the [line of the] back bone very much. And you will
find all the causes of this in my book of Anatomy.
361.
OF [CHANGE OF] ATTITUDE.
The pit of the throat is over the feet, and by throwing one arm
forward the pit of the throat is thrown off that foot. And if the
leg is thrown forward the pit of the throat is thrown forward; and.
so it varies in every attitude.
The proportions vary at different ages (362-367) 362.
OF PAINTING.
Indicate which are the muscles, and which the tendons, which become
prominent or retreat in the different movements of each limb; or
which do neither [but are passive]. And remember that these
indications of action are of the first importance and necessity in
any painter or sculptor who professes to be a master &c.
And indicate the same in a child, and from birth to decrepitude at
every stage of its life; as infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth &c.
And in each express the alterations in the limbs and joints, which
swell and which grow thinner.
363.
O Anatomical Painter! beware lest the too strong indication of the
bones, sinews and muscles, be the cause of your becoming wooden in
your painting by your wish to make your nude figures display all
their feeling. Therefore, in endeavouring to remedy this, look in
what manner the muscles clothe or cover their bones in old or lean
persons; and besides this, observe the rule as to how these same
muscles fill up the spaces of the surface that extend between them,
which are the muscles which never lose their prominence in any
amount of fatness; and which too are the muscles of which the
attachments are lost to sight in the very least plumpness. And in
many cases several muscles look like one single muscle in the
increase of fat; and in many cases, in growing lean or old, one
single muscle divides into several muscles. And in this treatise,
each in its place, all their peculiarities will be explained--and
particularly as to the spaces between the joints of each limb &c.
Again, do not fail [to observe] the variations in the forms of the
above mentioned muscles, round and about the joints of the limbs of
any animal, as caused by the diversity of the motions of each limb;
for on some side of those joints the prominence of these muscles is
wholly lost in the increase or diminution of the flesh of which
these muscles are composed, &c.
[Footnote: DE ROSSI remarks on this chapter, in the Roman edition of
the Trattato, p. 504: "_Non in questo luogo solo, ma in altri ancora
osservera il lettore, che Lionardo va fungendo quelli che fanno
abuso della loro dottrina anatomica, e sicuramente con cio ha in
mira il suo rivale Bonarroti, che di anatomia facea tanta pompa_."
Note, that Leonardo wrote this passage in Rome, probably under the
immediate impression of MICHAELANGELO'S paintings in the Sistine
Chapel and of RAPHAEL'S Isaiah in Sant' Agostino.]
364.
OF THE DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS OF BOYS AND MEN.
There is a great difference in the length between the joints in men
and boys for, in man, from the top of the shoulder [by the neck] to
the elbow, and from the elbow to the tip of the thumb and from one
shoulder to the other, is in each instance two heads, while in a boy
it is but one because Nature constructs in us the mass which is the
home of the intellect, before forming that which contains the vital
elements.
365.
OF PAINTING.
Which are the muscles which subdivide in old age or in youth, when
becoming lean? Which are the parts of the limbs of the human frame
where no amount of fat makes the flesh thicker, nor any degree of
leanness ever diminishes it?
The thing sought for in this question will be found in all the
external joints of the bones, as the shoulder, elbow, wrists,
finger-joints, hips, knees, ankle-bone and toes and the like; all of
which shall be told in its place. The greatest thickness acquired by
any limb is at the part of the muscles which is farthest from its
attachments.
Flesh never increases on those portions of the limb where the bones
are near to the surface.
At _b r d a c e f_ the increase or diminution of the flesh never
makes any considerable difference. Nature has placed in front of man
all those parts which feel most pain under a blow; and these are the
shin of the leg, the forehead, and the nose. And this was done for
the preservation of man, since, if such pain were not felt in these
parts, the number of blows to which they would be exposed must be
the cause of their destruction.
Describe why the bones of the arm and leg are double near the hand
and foot [respectively].
And where the flesh is thicker or thinner in the bending of the limbs.
366.
OF PAINTING.
Every part of the whole must be in proportion to the whole. Thus, if
a man is of a stout short figure he will be the same in all his
parts: that is with short and thick arms, wide thick hands, with
short fingers with their joints of the same character, and so on
with the rest. I would have the same thing understood as applying to
all animals and plants; in diminishing, [the various parts] do so in
due proportion to the size, as also in enlarging.
367.
OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE PROPORTION OF THE LIMBS.
And again, remember to be very careful in giving your figures limbs,
that they must appear to agree with the size of the body and
likewise to the age. Thus a youth has limbs that are not very
muscular not strongly veined, and the surface is delicate and round,
and tender in colour. In man the limbs are sinewy and muscular,
while in old men the surface is wrinkled, rugged and knotty, and the
sinews very prominent.
HOW YOUNG BOYS HAVE THEIR JOINTS JUST THE REVERSE OF THOSE OF MEN,
AS TO SIZE.
Little children have all the joints slender and the portions between
them are thick; and this happens because nothing but the skin covers
the joints without any other flesh and has the character of sinew,
connecting the bones like a ligature. And the fat fleshiness is laid
on between one joint and the next, and between the skin and the
bones. But, since the bones are thicker at the joints than between
them, as a mass grows up the flesh ceases to have that superfluity
which it had, between the skin and the bones; whence the skin clings
more closely to the bone and the limbs grow more slender. But since
there is nothing over the joints but the cartilaginous and sinewy
skin this cannot dry up, and, not drying up, cannot shrink. Thus,
and for this reason, children are slender at the joints and fat
between the joints; as may be seen in the joints of the fingers,
arms, and shoulders, which are slender and dimpled, while in man on
the contrary all the joints of the fingers, arms, and legs are
thick; and wherever children have hollows men have prominences.
The movement of the human figure (368-375) 368.
Of the manner of representing the 18 actions of man. Repose,
movement, running, standing, supported, sitting, leaning, kneeling,
lying down, suspended. Carrying or being carried, thrusting,
pulling, striking, being struck, pressing down and lifting up.
[As to how a figure should stand with a weight in its hand [Footnote
8: The original text ends here.] Remember].
369.
A sitting man cannot raise himself if that part of his body which is
front of his axis [centre of gravity] does not weigh more than that
which is behind that axis [or centre] without using his arms.
A man who is mounting any slope finds that he must involuntarily
throw the most weight forward, on the higher foot, rather than
behind--that is in front of the axis and not behind it. Hence a man
will always, involuntarily, throw the greater weight towards the
point whither he desires to move than in any other direction.
The faster a man runs, the more he leans forward towards the point
he runs to and throws more weight in front of his axis than behind.
A man who runs down hill throws the axis onto his heels, and one who
runs up hill throws it into the points of his feet; and a man
running on level ground throws it first on his heels and then on the
points of his feet.
This man cannot carry his own weight unless, by drawing his body
back he balances the weight in front, in such a way as that the foot
on which he stands is the centre of gravity.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 4.]
370.
How a man proceeds to raise himself to his feet, when he is sitting
on level ground.
371.
A man when walking has his head in advance of his feet.
A man when walking across a long level plain first leans [rather]
backwards and then as much forwards.
[Footnote 3-6: He strides forward with the air of a man going down
hill; when weary, on the contrary he walks like a man going up
hill.]
372.
A man when running throws less weight on his legs than when standing
still. And in the same way a horse which is running feels less the
weight of the man he carries. Hence many persons think it wonderful
that, in running, the horse can rest on one single foot. From this
it may be stated that when a weight is in progressive motion the
more rapid it is the less is the perpendicular weight towards the
centre.
373.
If a man, in taking a jump from firm ground, can leap 3 braccia, and
when he was taking his leap it were to recede 1/3 of a braccio, that
would be taken off his former leap; and so if it were thrust forward
1/3 of a braccio, by how much would his leap be increased?
374.
OF DRAWING.
When a man who is running wants to neutralise the impetus that
carries him on he prepares a contrary impetus which is generated by
his hanging backwards. This can be proved, since, if the impetus
carries a moving body with a momentum equal to 4 and the moving body
wants to turn and fall back with a momentum of 4, then one momentum
neutralises the other contrary one, and the impetus is neutralised.
Of walking up and down (375-379) 375.
When a man wants to stop running and check the impetus he is forced
to hang back and take short quick steps. [Footnote: Lines 5-31 refer
to the two upper figures, and the lower figure to the right is
explained by the last part of the chapter.] The centre of gravity of
a man who lifts one of his feet from the ground always rests on the
centre of the sole of the foot [he stands on].
A man, in going up stairs involuntarily throws so much weight
forward and on the side of the upper foot as to be a counterpoise to
the lower leg, so that the labour of this lower leg is limited to
moving itself.
The first thing a man does in mounting steps is to relieve the leg
he is about to lift of the weight of the body which was resting on
that leg; and besides this, he gives to the opposite leg all the
rest of the bulk of the whole man, including [the weight of] the
other leg; he then raises the other leg and sets the foot upon the
step to which he wishes to raise himself. Having done this he
restores to the upper foot all the weight of the body and of the leg
itself, and places his hand on his thigh and throws his head forward
and repeats the movement towards the point of the upper foot,
quickly lifting the heel of the lower one; and with this impetus he
lifts himself up and at the same time extends the arm which rested
on his knee; and this extension of the arm carries up the body and
the head, and so straightens the spine which was curved.
[32] The higher the step is which a man has to mount, the farther
forward will he place his head in advance of his upper foot, so as
to weigh more on _a_ than on _b_; this man will not be on the step
_m_. As is shown by the line _g f_.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 1. The lower sketch to the left
belongs to the four first lines.]
376.
I ask the weight [pressure] of this man at every degree of motion on
these steps, what weight he gives to _b_ and to _c_.
[Footnote 8: These lines are, in the original, written in ink]
Observe the perpendicular line below the centre of gravity of the
man.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 2.]
377.
In going up stairs if you place your hands on your knees all the
labour taken by the arms is removed from the sinews at the back of
the knees.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 3.]
378.
The sinew which guides the leg, and which is connected with the
patella of the knee, feels it a greater labour to carry the man
upwards, in proportion as the leg is more bent; and the muscle which
acts upon the angle made by the thigh where it joins the body has
less difficulty and has a less weight to lift, because it has not
the [additional] weight of the thigh itself. And besides this it has
stronger muscles, being those which form the buttock.
379.
A man coming down hill takes little steps, because the weight rests
upon the hinder foot, while a man mounting takes wide steps, because
his weight rests on the foremost foot.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 4.]
On the human body in action (380-388) 380.
OF THE HUMAN BODY IN ACTION.
When you want to represent a man as moving some weight consider what
the movements are that are to be represented by different lines;
that is to say either from below upwards, with a simple movement, as
a man does who stoops forward to take up a weight which he will lift
as he straightens himself. Or as a man does who wants to squash
something backwards, or to force it forwards or to pull it downwards
with ropes passed through pullies [Footnote 10: Compare the sketch
on page 198 and on 201 (S. K. M. II.1 86b).]. And here remember that
the weight of a man pulls in proportion as his centre of gravity is
distant from his fulcrum, and to this is added the force given by
his legs and bent back as he raises himself.
381.
Again, a man has even a greater store of strength in his legs than
he needs for his own weight; and to see if this is true, make a man
stand on the shore-sand and then put another man on his back, and
you will see how much he will sink in. Then take the man from off
his back and make him jump straight up as high as he can, and you
will find that the print of his feet will be made deeper by the jump
than from having the man on his back. Hence, here, by 2 methods it
is proved that a man has double the strength he requires to support
his own body.
382.
OF PAINTING.
If you have to draw a man who is in motion, or lifting or pulling,
or carrying a weight equal to his own, in what way must you set on
his legs below his body?
[Footnote: In the MS. this question remains unanswered.]
383.
OF THE STRENGTH OF MAN.
A man pulling a [dead] weight balanced against himself cannot pull
more than his own weight. And if he has to raise it he will [be able
to] raise as much more than his weight as his strength may be more
than that of other men. [Footnote 7: The stroke at the end of this
line finishes in the original in a sort of loop or flourish, and a
similar flourish occurs at the end of the previous passage written
on the same page. M. RAVAISSON regards these as numbers (compare the
photograph of page 30b in his edition of MS. A). He remarks: "_Ce
chiffre_ 8 _et, a la fin de l'alinea precedent, le chiffre_ 7 _sont,
dans le manuscrit, des renvois_."] The greatest force a man can
apply, with equal velocity and impetus, will be when he sets his
feet on one end of the balance [or lever] and then presses his
shoulders against some stable body. This will raise a weight at the
other end of the balance [lever], equal to his own weight and [added
to that] as much weight as he can carry on his shoulders.
384.
No animal can simply move [by its dead weight] a greater weight than
the sum of its own weight outside the centre of his fulcrum.
385.
A man who wants to send an arrow very far from the bow must be
standing entirely on one foot and raising the other so far from the
foot he stands on as to afford the requisite counterpoise to his
body which is thrown on the front foot. And he must not hold his arm
fully extended, and in order that he may be more able to bear the
strain he must hold a piece of wood which there is in all crossbows,
extending from the hand to the breast, and when he wishes to shoot
he suddenly leaps forward at the same instant and extends his arm
with the bow and releases the string. And if he dexterously does
every thing at once it will go a very long way.
386.
When two men are at the opposite ends of a plank that is balanced,
and if they are of equal weight, and if one of them wants to make a
leap into the air, then his leap will be made down from his end of
the plank and the man will never go up again but must remain in his
place till the man at the other end dashes up the board.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXIV, No. 3.]
387.
Of delivering a blow to the right or left.
[Footnote: Four sketches on Pl. XXIV, No. 1 belong to this passage.
The rest of the sketches and notes on that page are of a
miscellaneous nature.]
388.
Why an impetus is not spent at once [but diminishes] gradually in
some one direction? [Footnote 1: The paper has been damaged at the
end of line 1.] The impetus acquired in the line _a b c d_ is spent
in the line _d e_ but not so completely but that some of its force
remains in it and to this force is added the momentum in the line _d
e_ with the force of the motive power, and it must follow than the
impetus multiplied by the blow is greater that the simple impetus
produced by the momentum _d e_.
[Footnote 8: The sketch No. 2 on Pl. XXIV stands, in the original,
between lines 7 and 8. Compare also the sketches on Pl. LIV.] A man
who has to deal a great blow with his weapon prepares himself with
all his force on the opposite side to that where the spot is which
he is to hit; and this is because a body as it gains in velocity
gains in force against the object which impedes its motion.
On hair falling down in curls (389) 389.
Observe the motion of the surface of the water which resembles that
of hair, and has two motions, of which one goes on with the flow of
the surface, the other forms the lines of the eddies; thus the water
forms eddying whirlpools one part of which are due to the impetus of
the principal current and the other to the incidental motion and
return flow.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXV. Where also the text of this passage is given
in facsimile.]
On draperies (390-392) 390.
OF THE NATURE OF THE FOLDS IN DRAPERY.
That part of a fold which is farthest from the ends where it is
confined will fall most nearly in its natural form.
Every thing by nature tends to remain at rest. Drapery, being of
equal density and thickness on its wrong side and on its right, has
a tendency to lie flat; therefore when you give it a fold or plait
forcing it out of its flatness note well the result of the
constraint in the part where it is most confined; and the part which
is farthest from this constraint you will see relapses most into the
natural state; that is to say lies free and flowing.
EXAMPLE.
[Footnote 13: _a c sia_. In the original text _b_ is written instead
of _c_--an evident slip of the pen.] Let _a b c_ be the fold of the
drapery spoken of above, _a c_ will be the places where this folded
drapery is held fast. I maintain that the part of the drapery which
is farthest from the plaited ends will revert most to its natural
form.
Therefore, _b_ being farthest from _a_ and _c_ in the fold _a b c_
it will be wider there than anywhere else.
[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 6, and compare the drawing from
Windsor Pl. XXX for farther illustration of what is here stated.]
391.
OF SMALL FOLDS IN DRAPERIES.
How figures dressed in a cloak should not show the shape so much as
that the cloak looks as if it were next the flesh; since you surely
cannot wish the cloak to be next the flesh, for you must suppose
that between the flesh and the cloak there are other garments which
prevent the forms of the limbs appearing distinctly through the
cloak. And those limbs which you allow to be seen you must make
thicker so that the other garments may appear to be under the cloak.
But only give something of the true thickness of the limbs to a
nymph [Footnote 9: _Una nifa_. Compare the beautiful drawing of a
Nymph, in black chalk from the Windsor collection, Pl. XXVI.] or an
angel, which are represented in thin draperies, pressed and clinging
to the limbs of the figures by the action of the wind.
392.
You ought not to give to drapery a great confusion of many folds,
but rather only introduce them where they are held by the hands or
the arms; the rest you may let fall simply where it is its nature to
flow; and do not let the nude forms be broken by too many details
and interrupted folds. How draperies should be drawn from nature:
that is to say if youwant to represent woollen cloth draw the folds
from that; and if it is to be silk, or fine cloth or coarse, or of
linen or of crape, vary the folds in each and do not represent
dresses, as many do, from models covered with paper or thin leather
which will deceive you greatly.
[Footnote: The little pen and ink drawing from Windsor (W. 102),
given on Pl. XXVIII, No. 7, clearly illustrates the statement made
at the beginning of this passage; the writing of the cipher 19 on
the same page is in Leonardo's hand; the cipher 21 is certainly
not.] _