In comparing the Ambrosian chant with that of Gregory, it may be said that we have touched upon the vital principle of modern music. The novelty in the Gregorian chant consisted in its absolute emancipation from the tyranny of actual words and declamation; while the idea, the poetic principle, or religious ecstasy still remained the ideal to be expressed in the music. Before this, as already explained, music was either a mathematical problem, a rhythm to mark the time in dancing, or a vehicle serving for the display of clever
tours de force, the music of the tragedies being merely a kind of melodious declamation. To quote Goethe, "having recognized the fact, it still remains for us to see how it developed." Let us now consider this point.
Three things were necessary before these Gregorian chants could develop at all: (1) A simple, clean-cut musical scale or systematized table of musical sounds. (2) Some definite manner of symbolizing sounds, so that they could be accurately expressed in writing. (3) A cultivation of the sense of hearing, in order that mankind might learn to distinguish between sounds that are discordant and those that sound well together; in other words, harmony.
We will begin with the scale, and review what we know of the Greek modes in order to show how they were amalgamated into our present octave system of scales.
[Tetrachords /------|----- /-------|-------- ]
[ F: b, c d e f g a G: b c' d' e' f' g' a']
[Mixolydian --+-+-+-+-+-+----/ | | | | | | ]
[Lydian -+-+-+-+-+------/ | | | | | ]
[Phrygian -+-+-+-+---------/ | | | | ]
[Dorian -+-+-+------------/ | | | ]
[Hypolydian -+-+---------------/ | | ]
[Hypophrygian -+------------------/ | ]
[Aeolian or Locrian or Hypodorian ---------------------/ ]
[Notes labelled from highest to lowest: Nete, Páranete, Trite,
Nete, Páranete, Trite, Paramese, Mese, Líchanos, Parhýpate,
Hýpate, Líchanos, Parhýpate, Hýpate, [F: a,] Proslambanómenos.]
Under Ambrose and Pope Gregory, these modes had taken a different form. The chromatic and enharmonic styles had been abandoned in theory, the portamento which the singers introduced into their chants being the only principle retained. The new system was as follows:
[F8: g, a, b, G8: c d e f g a b c' d' e' f' g' a']
[First nine notes labelled:
Hypoion., Hypodor., Hypophryg., Hypolyd./Ionian,
Hypo-mixolyd./Dorian, Hypoaeol./Phryg., Lyd., Mixolyd., Aeol.]
In order to complete the story of the evolution of scales and clefs, we must add that the Flemish monk, Hucbald (900 A.D.), divided this scale into regular tetrachords, beginning at G, with the succession, tone, semitone, tone, forming four disjunct tetrachords,
[F: (g, a, b-, c) (d e f g) (a b c' d') G: (e' f+' g' a')]
This division remained without influence on the development of the scale.
The first change in the
tetrachord system of reckoning tones and dividing the scale was made by Guido d'Arezzo (first half of eleventh century), who divided it into hexachords or groups of six notes each. Up to that time, each note of the scale had had a letter of the alphabet for its symbol. It was Guido who conceived the idea of using syllables for these notes. The story of how it occurred to him is well known: On one occasion, hearing his brethren in the monastery choir of Arezzo, in Tuscany, sing a hymn to St. John the Baptist, he noticed that the first syllable of each line came on regularly ascending notes of the scale, the first syllable coming on C, the first of the next line on D, the first of the third on E, etc., up to A on the sixth line. As all these syllables happened to differ one from the other, and, moreover, were very easy to sing, he hit upon the idea of using them to distinguish the notes on which they fell in the hymn.
[F: c d f (d e) d | d d c d e e ]
[W: Ut queant laxis | Resonare fibris ]
[F: (e f g) e (d e) c d | f g a (g f) d d]
[W: Mira gestorum | Famuli tuorum ]
[F: (g a g) e f g d | a g a f (g a) a | (g f) d c e d ]
[W: Solve polluti | Labii reatum | Sancte Joannes]
Furthermore, as there were six of these syllables, he arranged the musical scale in groups of six notes instead of four, hexachords instead of tetrachords. Commencing with G, which was the lowest note of the system in Hucbald's time, the first hexachord was formed of G A B C D E; the second, following the example of the Greeks, he made to overlap the first, namely, C D E F G A; the third, likewise overlapping the second, commenced on F. In order to make this hexachord identical in structure with, the first and second, he flatted the B, thus making the succession of notes, F G A B[flat] C D. The next three hexachords were repetitions of the first three, namely, G A B C D E, C D E F G A, F G A B[flat] C D; the last was again a repetition of the first, G A B C D E.
THE GAMUT.
[F: g, a, b, c d e c d e f g a f g a b- c' d' ]
[W: [Gamma] A B C D E C D E F G a F G a b c d ]
[W: (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la)]
[Hexachords: (Hard Low) (Natural Low) (Soft Low)]
[G: g a b= c' d' e' c' d' e' f' g' a' ]
[W: G a b c d e c d e f g aa ]
[W: (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la)]
[Hexachords: (Hard High) (Natural High)]
[G: f' g' a' b-' c'' d'' g' a' b=' c'' d'' e'']
[W: f g aa bb cc dd g aa bb cc dd ee ]
[W: (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la)]
[Hexachords: (Soft High) (Hard Super Acute)]
To the lowest note of this scale, which was foreign to the Greek system, he gave a special name,
gamma, after the Greek letter G. From this we get our word for the scale, the gamut. The other notes remained the same as before, only that for the lowest octave capital letters were used; in the next octave, the notes were designated by small letters, and in the last octave by double letters, aa, bb, etc., as in the following example.
[F: g, g G: a g' | a' g'' ]
[W: Capitals. : Small letters | Double or very small letters]
PRESENT SCALE.
[F: c,, | c, | c G: c' | c'' | c''' | c'''']
[W: C | C | c : c' | c'' | c''' | c'''']
[W: Contra | Great | Small : 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 4th ]
Following out his system, he applied the newly acquired syllables to each of the hexachords--for instance, the lowest hexachord, G A B C D E, which was called hard, became
ut re mi fa sol la; the second, which was called natural, C D E F G A, also became
ut re mi fa sol la; and the third, which was called soft, F G A B[flat] C D, became likewise
ut re mi fa sol la. The next three hexachords were treated in the same manner; the last or seventh hexachord was merely a repetition of the first and the fourth.
Now in the hymns, and also in the sequences, as they were called (which were simply a series of notes forming a little melody sung to two or three words), the voice was rarely called upon to progress more than the interval of a sixth, and so this solmization, as the new system was called, was very valuable; for one had only to give the pitch, and
ut always meant the keynote,
re the second,
mi the third, etc., etc. In time
ut was found to be a difficult syllable to sing, and
do was substituted. This change, however, was made after the scale was divided into a system of octaves instead of hexachords. The improvement in singing soon made the limits of the hexachords too small to be practical; therefore another syllable was added to the hexachordal system,
si, and with this seventh note we have our modern scale. From this we see that the scale in present use is composed of octaves, just as the older scales were composed of hexachords, and before that tetrachords. Just as in mediaeval times each hexachord commenced with
ut, so now every octave of our tonal system commences with
do.
Before leaving the hexachordal system, it may be as well to explain the mode of procedure when the voice had to go beyond the interval of the sixth. We know that the first of every set of six notes was called
ut, the second,
re, the third,
mi, etc. When the voice had to go beyond
la, the sixth note, to B[natural], that sixth note was always called
re, and was considered the second note of a new hexachord. If, on the other hand, the voice had to go beyond
a, to B[flat], the fifth note was called
re, since the syllables
mi fa must always come on the half-tone.
In a study of our system of writing music, it may be as well to begin with the derivation of our sharps and flats. Observing the third hexachord on our list we see that in order to make it identical in structure with the first and second, the B had to be lowered a semitone. Now the third hexachord was called soft. The B[flat] in it was accordingly called a soft B or B
molle, which is still the name in France for a flat, and
moll in German still means minor, or "soft" or "lowered." For the fourth hexachord, which was called hard, this B was again raised a semitone. But the flatted B was already indicated by the letter
b or round
b, as it was called; hence this B natural was given a
square shape and called B
carré, [illustration]. The present French word for natural (when it is specially marked) is
bécarré; the German word for major also comes indirectly from this, for
dur means "hard."
An explanation of the modern German names for notes will be easily understood in this connection. In the German nomenclature the letters of the alphabet stand for the notes of the scale as in the English, with the exception of B. This B, or "round" B, in the German system stands for B[flat], which is more logical than our English usage, since our flat is merely a slightly modified form of
b. The German B natural is our letter
h, which is merely a corruption of the square
b, [illustration], which by the addition of a line in time became our [natural]. The Germans have carried the flatting and sharping of tones to a logical conclusion in their present nomenclature, for by "sharping" the sound of a single letter it is raised a semitone from its normal diapason, thus F becomes
Fis, G
Gis. On the other hand, in order to lower a tone, the letter representing it is "flatted," and F is called
Fes, G
Ges, the only exception to these rules being the B which we have already considered.
In France the Guidonian system was adhered to closely, and to this day the
bécarré is used only as an accidental, to indicate that the note to which it refers has been flatted before. The
naturel (which has the same shape) is used to designate a note that is natural to the key; thus the distinction is made between an accidental and a note that is common to the key. In F major, for instance, B[natural] is
si bécarré, A[natural] would be
la naturel. Our modern sharp is merely another form of the natural or square B ([natural]) which gradually came to be used before
any note, signifying that it was raised or sharped a half-tone; the flat lowered it a semitone, and after a while the natural received its present place between the sharp and flat. The first instance we have of the sharp being used is in the thirteenth century, when (in the Rondels of Adam de la Hale) it takes the form of a cross [x] (the German word for the sharp still remains
kreuz). The French word
diese (sharp) comes from the Greek
diesis, a term used to indicate the raising of the voice in the chromatic scale.
And now we have to speak of notation and its development. Thus far we have found only two ways in which musical sounds were indicated by the ancients. First, we remember the invention of Aristophanes of Alexandria, his accents, high, low, and circumflex. Then we know from Ptolemy, Boethius, and Alypius that letters were used to designate the different tones; but as there is no music extant in this notation to prove the theory, we need not trouble ourselves with it.
The system of Aristophanes, however, was destined to become the nucleus from which our modern notation sprang. We know that an elementary idea, clearly expressed, has more chances of living than has a more complicated system, however ingenious the latter may be. Now this system is so plain that we will find it is common to many aboriginal peoples, for instance the American Indians have a system very similar.
In the period now under consideration (from the third to the tenth century), music was noted in this way: an upstroke of the pen meant a raising of the voice, a downstroke lowered it, a flat stroke meant a repetition of the same note, thus [/ -] [G: c' g' c' c']. Gradually it became necessary to indicate the contour of the melodies with more accuracy; therefore the circumflex was added [Over-slur] [G: g' c'' g'] and reversed [Under-slur] [G: g' e' g']. Still later a sign for two steps was invented [Step] [G: e' g' b'] and when the progression was to be diatonically stepwise the strokes were thicker [Thick Step] [G: g' a' b']. So this notation developed, and by combining the many signs together, simple non-rhythmic melodies could be indicated with comparative clearness and simplicity. The flat stroke for a single note "-", indicating [G: b'], eventually became smaller and thicker, thus [Thick -]. By combining these different signs, a skip of a third and back came to be noted [Crenellation], and if the note came down on a second instead of the original note it became [Podium] [G: g' b' a']. The
quilisma ([Upper Mordent]) indicated a repetition of two notes, one above the other, and we still use much the same sign for our trill. Also the two forms of the circumflex, [Over-slur] [Under-slur], were joined ([Turn]) and thus we have the modern turn, so much used by Wagner.
Now while this notation was ingenious, it still left much to be desired as to pitch. To remedy this a red line was drawn before writing these signs or
neumes, as they were called. This line represented a given pitch, generally E; above and below it were then written the signs for the notes, their pitch being determined by the relative position they held in regard to the
line. Thus [Podium, Turn, Upper Mordent] was the equivalent of [G: c' e' d' e' d' c' d' e' d' e' d' e' d'], considering the line as being middle C pitch, a fourth higher F. This was the condition of musical notation in 1000 A.D.
To Guido d'Arezzo is ascribed its development up to some semblance of our present system, although the claim has often been denied. It is certain, however, that the innovations were made at this period. In the first place Guido made the red line
always stand for the pitch of F, and at a little distance above it he added another line, this time yellow, which was to indicate the pitch of C. Thus the signs began to take very definite meaning as regards pitch; for, given a sign extending from one line to the other, the reader could see at a glance that the music progressed a fifth, from F to C, or
vice-versa. And now the copyists, seeing the value of these lines in determining the pitch of the different signs, of their own account added two more in black ink, one of which they drew between the F and the C line, and the other above the C line, thus [illustration]. By doing this they accurately decided the pitch of every note, for the lowest line, being F, the line between that and the C line must stand for A, and the two spaces for G and B; the top line would stand for E, and the space between it and the yellow line for D. Little by little these copyists grew careless about making the lines in yellow, red, and black, and sometimes drew them all in black or red, thereby losing the distinguishing mark of the F and C lines. In order to remedy this, Guido placed the letters F and C before the lines representing these notes, thus [illustration]. In this way our modern
clefs (
clavis or key) originated, for the C clef, as it is called, gradually changed its shape to [illustration] and [illustration], and the F clef changed to [illustration], which is our bass clef in a rudimentary form.
Later, still another line was added to the set, thus giving us our modern staff, and another clef, [illustration], was added on the next to the lowest line. This, in turn, became our present treble clef, [G:]. In the course of time the signs themselves underwent many changes, until at last from [Podium], etc., they became our modern signs.
Before this, however, a grave defect in the notation had to be remedied. There was as yet no way of designating the length of time a note was to be sustained; something definite in the way of noting
rhythm was necessary. This was accomplished by Franco of Cologne, in the beginning of the thirteenth century. By disconnecting the parts of the sign [Podium] one from another, the following individual signs were acquired [illustration of Podium broken into three pieces]. In order to have two distinct values of length, these signs were called longs and shorts,
longa [illustration], and
brevis [illustration], to which was added the
brevis in another position [illustration], called
semibrevis. The
longa was twice the value of the
brevis, and the
semibrevis was half the length of the
brevis ([L = B B B = S S]). When notes of equal length were slurred, they were written [illustration]. When two or more notes were to be sung to one syllable in quicker time, the
brevi were joined one to the other [illustration], as for instance in the songs of the thirteenth century,
DIRGE FOR KING RICHARD'S DEATH
GAUCELM FAIDIT.
[Illustration]
[W: Fortz chose est que tot le maur major dam]
ROI THIBAUT DE NAVARRE (1250).
[Illustration]
[W: Si li dis sans de laies | Belle diex vous doint bon jour]
or, in modern style,
[G: g' a' b' c'' (d'' c'') (b' a' g') |
a' b' (c'' b') (b' a' g') (a' b') g']
In this example we find the first indication of the measuring off of phrases into bars. As we see, it consisted of a little stroke, which served to show the beginning of a new line, and was not restricted to regularity of any kind except that necessitated by the verse.
The use of the
semibrevis is shown in the following chanson of Raoul de Coucy (1192):
[Illustration]
[W: Quant li rossignol jolis | chante
Seur la flor d'este | que n'est la rose et le lis]
[G: d'' (c'' a') b-' (a' (g' f')) g' (a' b-' a' f') f' | f' g'
a' (b-' a') (c'' d'' c'' b-') (a' g') a' |
d'' (c'' a') b-' a' (g' f') g' (a' (b-' a') f') f']
The French troubadours and the German minnesingers of the thirteenth century used these forms of notes only, and even then restricted themselves to two kinds, either the
longa and
brevis, or
brevis and
semibrevis.
The necessity for rests very soon manifested itself, and the following signs were invented to correspond to the
longa,
brevis, and
semibrevis [illustration]. Also the number of note symbols was increased by the
maxima or double
longa [illustration], and the
minima [illustration], which represented half the value of the
semibrevis.
Now that music began taking a more definite rhythmic form than before, a more regular dividing off of the phrases became necessary. This was accomplished by the use of a dot, and another form, the perpendicular line, which we have noticed in the song of the King of Navarre (1250). At first a means to indicate triple time was invented, and the measure corresponding to our [9/8] was indicated by placing the sign [O.] at the beginning of the line. This was called perfect. Then, for plain triple time the dot was omitted [O]; for [6/8] time the sign [C.] was adopted, and for ordinary common time [C] was taken. Consequently, when these signs were placed at the beginning of the line they changed the value of the notes to correspond to the time marked. Thus in [O.] (
tempus perfectum,
prolatio major) or [9/8], the
brevis was reckoned worth three
semibrevi [B = S S S] ([1. = 4. 4. 4.]); the
semibrevis three
minimi [S = M M M] ([4. = 8 8 8]). In [O] or [3/4] time [B = S S S] ([2. = 4 4 4]); but the
semibrevis was only as long as two
minimi [S = M M] ([4 = 8 8]). In [C.] or [6/8] time [B = S S] ([2. = 4. 4.]), but [S = M M M] ([4. = 8 8 8]). In [C] or [2/2] time [B = S S] ([1 = 2 2]), and [S = M M] ([2 = 4 4]).
In the beginning of the fifteenth century the notes began to be written in an open form
[Illustration] Maxima.
[Illustration] Longa.
[Illustration] Brevis.
[Illustration] Semibrevis.
[Illustration] Minima.
[Illustration] Semiminima, which was added later.
As still smaller units of value were added, the
semiminima was replaced by [filled minima], and the half
semiminima thus became [minima with tail], and the next smaller values, [two tails] and [three tails]. The rest to correspond to the
semiminima was [illustration]; for the
semibrevis [illustration], and
minima [illustration].
Thus we have the following values and their corresponding rests:
Maxima [Illustration]
Longa [Illustration]
Brevis [Illustration]
Semibrevis [Illustration]
Minima [Illustration]
Semiminima or crocheta [Illustration]
Fusa or crocheta [Illustration]
Semifusa [Illustration]
The rests for the
fusa and
semifusa were turned to the left in order to avoid the confusion that would ensue if the rest [illustration] stood for [fusa]. Besides, the sign would have easily become confused with the C clef [illustration].
Signs for the changes of
tempo, that is to say changes from quick to slow, etc., were introduced in the fifteenth century. The oldest of them consists of drawing a line through the
tempus sign [O|]. This meant that the notes were to be played or sung twice as rapidly as would usually be the case, without, however, affecting the relative value of the notes to one another. Now we remember that the sign [C] stood for our modern [4/4] time; when a line was drawn through it, [C|] it indicated that two
brevi were counted as one, and the movement was said to be
alla breve. This is the one instance of time signatures that has come down to us unaltered.
NOTES:
All other text enclosed between square brackets represents or
describes the illustrations:
Pitches: [c, ... c ... a b c' (middle-C) d' e' ... c'' ... c''']
Round brackets: when around a single note these represent a note
in the extract which was bracketed or otherwise highlighted.
When around two or more notes, they represent a slur or beam.
Braces: surround simultaneous notes in a chord {a c' e'}
Accidentals:
[f++] = F double-sharp
[a+] = A sharp
[c=] = C natural
[e-] = E flat
[d--] = D double-flat
In the main text, accidentals are written out in full, as [natural], A[flat], G[sharp]. One table uses [#] for [sharp].
Accents and marcato: denoted by > and ^ before a note.
Time signatures: [4/4], [6/8], etc.
[C] or [C/4] = C-shaped [4/4] time.
[C|] or [C/2] = C-shaped [2/2] time.
[O] = A circle
[O.] = A circle with a dot in the center
[C.] = A broken circle (C-shaped) with a dot in the center
[G:] = Treble clef ([G8:] = Treble clef 8va bassa)
[F:] = Bass clef ([F8:] = Bass clef 8va bassa)
Rhythms (A trailing . represents a dotted note):
[L] = Longa
[B] = Brevis
[S] = Semibrevis
[1] = Whole-note (Semibreve)
[2] = Half-note (Minim)
[4] = Quarter-note (Crotchet)
[8] = Eighth-note (Quaver)
[16] = Sixteenth-note (Semiquaver)
Lyrics and Labels: words aligned with the notes begin [W: ...]
Breves and macrons, used to denote short and long stresses in poetry are denoted ' and '-' respectively.
[| = Bar (Bar line)
[< = Crescendo hairpin
[x = small cross
[ = 45 degree downstroke
[/ = 45 degree upstroke
[/ = large circumflex shape
[O| = a circle bisected by a vertical line protruding both ways
[Gamma] = The Greek capital gamma
[mid-dot] = a dot at the height of a hyphen
[over-dot] = a single dot over the following letter
[Over-slur] = a frown-shaped curved line
[Under-slur] = a smile-shaped curved line (breve)
[reverse-apostrophe] = the mirror image of a closing quote
[Upper Mordent] = an upper mordent: /// with thick downstrokes
[Crenellation] = horizontals, low, high, low, connected by verticals
[Podium] = [Crenellation] with the third horizontal at half-height
[Step] = horizontal, vertical, horizontal, vertical, ascending
[Turn] = a turn (~)
[Figure 01] = extract available as a MIDI file (figure01.mid).
[Illustration] = all other illustrations.
For example, here's a D minor scale set to words:
[G: d' e' (f' g') a' b-' (c+'' d'')]
[W: One, two, three, four, five, six. ]
And a simple rhythmic example:
[3/4: 4 4 8 8 | 8. 16 2] = [- - ' ' - ' -]
[The end]
Edward MacDowell's essay: Formation Of The Scale--Notation